Teaching fiction and nonfiction texts to all types of learners including the ELLs

Graphic organizer:

Fiction text: The Wanderings of Odysseus: The Story of Odyssey by Rosemary Sutcliff
http://www.amazon.com/The-Wanderings-Odysseus-Story-Odyssey/dp/0553494821

Nonfiction text: Credo: I Believe by Ignatious Press

Student text
http://www.ignatius.com/promotions/faithandlife/download/FLGr5STSample.pdf

Activity book
http://www.ignatius.com/promotions/faithandlife/download/FLGr5ABSample.pdf

Teacher's manual
http://www.ignatius.com/promotions/faithandlife/download/FLGr5TMSample.pdf

Spanish version
http://www.ignatius.com/promotions/faithandlife/download/FLS5_S-Psample.pdf

Family guide manual
http://www.ignatius.com/promotions/faithandlife/download/flb_fg-psample.pdf

What does research say about teaching fiction and nonfiction texts to students (including ELLs)?

Simmons & Kameenui, 1998; Pressley, 2000; Pearson & Duke, 2002
Understanding the way in which authors organize and structure their ideas in texts is key to understanding good reading comprehension.

Vallecorsa & Bettencourt, 1997
One of the most important aspects of teaching young children to comprehend narrative texts is to teach them story structure.

Thorndyke, 1977; Mandler & Johnson, 1977; Stein & Glenn, 1979
The elements of story structure have been captured in a system of rules called story grammars.

Reutzel & Cooter Jr., 2004
1. Story grammars are the rules, necessary elements to make a story, and the expected sequence for these elements. Researchers generally agree on the following elements and sequence of elements in a story grammar: setting, problem, goal, events, and resolution.

2. Developing a sense of how stories are written and organized helps readers predict what is coming next with greater skill, store information in schemas more efficiently , and recall story elements with increased accuracy and completeness.

Gordon & Braun, 1983; Hagood, 1997
Effective teaching procedures for developing readers' story grammar knowledge:
1. Instruction in story structure is most effective when it makes use of well-formed stories. Visual organizers can be used before, during, and after reading to guide discussion.
2. Set the purposes for reading by asking questions related to the structure of the story. Questioning designed to follow the story's structure will focus students' attention on major story elements.
3. After questioning and discussing story structure, specific questions about the story content can be asked.
4. For continued instruction, gradually introduce less well-formed stories so that students will learn that not all stories are "ideal" in organization.
5. Extend this instruction by encouraging children to ask their own questions using story structure and to apply this understanding in writing their own stories.

Reutzel & Cooter Jr., 2004
Nearly 85 percent of all adult reading is with information texts (i.e. nonfiction). Information texts contain facts, details, descriptions, and procedures that are necessary to understand concepts and events in the world around us. Authors structure information texts using several well-known text patterns or structures.

Armbruster & Anderson, 1981; Meyer, 1979
They researched text patterns most used by authors of information texts. These include:
1. Time order - putting information into a chronological sequence
2. Cause & effect - showing how something occurs because of another event
3. Problem & solution - presenting a problem along with a solution to the problem
4. Comparison - examining similarities and differences among concepts and events
5. Simple listing - registering in list form a group of facts, concepts, or events
6. Descriptions

Bartlett, 1978; Meyer, Brandt, & Bluth, 1980
Readers who understand an author's organizational pattern recall more from reading information texts than readers who do not.

Reutzel & Cooter Jr., 2004
1. Research has also shown that poor or struggling readers are less likely to be able to identify and use an author's organization of text to recall information.

2. Teachers need to teach children how to identify the author's organizational pattern or text structure and use this knowledge.

Applications in my classroom:

1. Fiction - research has emphasized teaching about the plot structure of a narrative or fictional text. In my literature classes, my students use the plot structure/story grammar, a list of Socratic questions related to the plot, and literary terms in reading and analyzing a particular piece of literature. For this 3rd quarter, my 5th grade students have been reading and discussing The Wanderings of Odysseus: The Story of Odyssey. Below are images of the plot structure that the students use, a sample of the list of Socratic questions that they discuss and answer, and some of the literary terms that they have to find in the literature (if applicable).

Plot

Socratic questions

Literary terms

2. Nonfiction - research says that we need to explicitly teach students the author's organizational structure of an informational or nonfiction text. I chose a Religion/Theology text because this is one of the most difficult texts that my students read, especially if they are not Catholic. At the beginning of the school year, I walk through my students into the different parts of the text and the accompanying activity book which acts as the formal graphic organizer of the text. I show them how a chapter looks like, what is included in it, the important vocabulary words that they need to memorize, the memorization questions, and how the text is supported by the Bible. The Religion/Theology text has all the text patterns found in the research by Armbruster & Anderson and Meyer. We discuss these text patterns in Language Arts as well so these text patterns are integrated in reading the Religion text. I also communicate with the parents on how they can help their children to understand the text by sharing with them how to use the family guide that supports the contents of the student text. I also taught my students how to use applicable graphic organizers (the ones I have shared with the class last Wednesday) and sticky notes/taking down notes while I read aloud a particular chapter. I read aloud a chapter for two days and the students accomplish (with scaffolding) their activity book pages for two days. Before a quiz, I go over with my students the quiz questions. If the quiz has an essay part, I allow them to write their essay before the quiz and use their sticky notes. It is like a close reading process. Teaching Religion/Theology is hard because one has to make sure that the content being taught is according to what the Church teaches. 

REFERENCES:

Armbruster, B., & Anderson, T. (1981). Content area textbooks (Reading Education Report No. 23). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Center for the Study of Reading.

Bartlett, B. J. (1978). Top-level structure as an organizational strategy for recall of classroom text. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University.

Gordon, C. J., & Braun, C. (1983). Using story schema as an aid to reading and writing. The Reading Teacher, 37(2), 116-121.

Hagood, B. F. (1997). Reading and writing with help from story grammar. Teaching Exceptional Children, 29(4), 10-14.

Mandler, J. M., & Johnson, N. S. (1977). Remembrance of things parsed: Story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 111-151. 

Meyer, B. J. (1979). Organizational patterns in prose and their use in reading. In M. L. Kamil & A. J. Moe (Eds.), Reading research: Studies and applications (pp. 109-117). Twenty-eighth Yearbook of the National Reading Conference.

Meyer, B., Brandt, D., & Bluth, G. (1980). Use of top-level structure in text for reading comprehension on ninth-grade students. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 72-103.

Pearson, P. D., & Duke, N. (2002). Comprehension instruction in the primary grades. In C. Collins-Block & M. Pressley (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices (pp. 247-258). New York: Guilford Press.

Pressley, M. (2000). What should comprehension instruction be the instruction of? In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research, Vol. 3. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 

Reutzel, D. R., & Cooter, Jr., R. B. (2004). Teaching children to read: Putting the pieces together (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Simmons, D. C., & Kameenui, E. J. (1998). What reading research tell us about children with diverse learning needs: Bases and basics. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Stein, N. L., & Glenn, C. G. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary school children. In R. O. Freedle (Ed.), New directions in discourse processing (pp. 53-120). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Thorndike, P. N. (1997). Cognitive structure in comprehension and memory of narrative discourse. Cognitive Psychology, 9(1), 77-110.

Vallecorsa, A. L., & deBettencourt, L. U. (1997). Using a mapping procedure to teach reading and writing skills to middle grade students with learning disabilities. Education and the Treatment of Children, 20(2), 173-188.

*I was finished with my draft at 9 PM. Then, my ever-reliable Sony Vaio keyboard, with a mind of its own, deleted my draft. I have to rewrite from memory everything that I wrote two hours ago. Sigh.

Meaning-making for the ELL

A sheltered lesson that promotes comprehensible input for ELLs is one of the more effective strategies that teachers can use to differentiate instruction for ELLs. Dr. Elizabeth Grassi of Regis College defines a sheltered lesson as making content accessible to ELLs. She further explains that students are more engaged if the materials used in the classroom are relevant to the cultures of the students in the classroom. This was shown through the lesson about Esperanza Rising.

The sheltered lesson consisted of three phases: prereading, during reading, and after reading. Here are my observations and reflection:

Prereading

Before starting a literacy lesson, it is important to explicitly explain the lesson for the day, content objectives, language objectives, and student expectations. Directions should be stated verbally and should also be written down. Explicit instruction helps students to be more comfortable and reduce anxiety levels. High levels of anxiety inhibit second language acquisition.

In the lesson, the teacher reviewed the reading strategies that the class has already discussed. From these reading strategies, the teacher asked the students what specific reading strategies will be useful for the lesson.

Preview key vocabulary. The teacher writes the vocabulary, says the vocabulary out loud, and provides context for understanding the vocabulary. Context can be provided by using pictures of the vocabulary. Provide synonyms of key words. Provide stories or descriptions of key words that relate to students' lives and are meaningful to them. Use the students' first language to clarify the key vocabulary.

Preview the story. If using picture books, a teacher can use picture walk, showing pictures on the pages and summarizing what's happening in the story, or even predicting what is going to happen next. When using chapter books, previewing the story can be in the form of taking a chapter of the book and summarizing the main idea of the chapter. Teachers can also use graphic organizers or chart in which students can discuss the content of the story or of the main chapter. The students can also be tapped to compare their background knowledge with the main concept of the story. Teachers can also use an illustration from the book, a key word or phrase from the book, or title of the book and put it on the overhead, and ask students to predict what the book is all about. Then let students collaborate with each other. Collaboration enables the students to learn from their peers and a chance to clarify their thinking.

When previewing a book, it is important to relate the book to the students' background knowledge so the book is meaningful and engaging.

During reading

The teacher reiterates student expectations and shelters directions. Ask students to provide a clarifying explanation of parts of the book that are unfamiliar to a teacher. Teacher or students read aloud the text so that the ELLs can see and hear the words at the same time. When the teacher read aloud, he/she needs to deliver the speech slowly and clearly. A teacher should also explicitly instruct students on reading strategies and remind students on how to use these strategies. Explicit instruction strategies increases second language acquisition. Teachers should also scaffold students and help them use strategies in reading by questioning, reminding them how to use strategies, and encouraging them to use the strategies. Repetition is also important to second language acquisition. Increase student engagement in the text by proving students plenty of time to interact with the text. Allow wait time for the students to actively interact with the text. Student output is equally necessary as student input. ELLs need to practice the second language if they are to be fluent in it. If students don't make connections to the text, the teacher needs to help the students make the connections.

After reading

Review key vocabulary, reading strategies, content, learning objectives, and give the students the opportunity to independently interact with the text. Remember that connections when made often and new concepts and words are reinforced often, comprehension and student engagement are greatly increased. Also remember to shelter the review. Provide opportunities for clarification, hands-on activities, and group work.

Some more thoughts... The Diary Board is a very good idea that I can use in my literature classes. The strategies mentioned here are also applicable to regular classrooms. Accessing a student's background knowledge is really the key to open those connections in the real life.